“Learn from yesterday, live for today, hope for tomorrow. The important thing is to not stop questioning.”
Saturday, September 28, 2013
Thursday, September 26, 2013
difference between Gram positive cell wall and Gram negative cell wall.
Gram Positive Cell Wall:
Gram-positive bacteria have a thick mesh-like cell wall which is made up of peptidoglycan (50-90% of cell wall), which stains purple. Peptidoglycan is mainly a polysaccharide composed of two subunits called N-acetyl glucosamine and N-acetyl muramic acid. As adjacent layers of peptidoglycan are formed, they are cross linked by short chains of peptides by means of a transpeptidase enzyme, resulting in the shape and rigidity of the cell wall. The thick peptidoglycan layer of Gram-positive organisms allows these organisms to retain the crystal violet-iodine complex and stains the cells as purple.
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| gram positive cell wall (c) pic frm |
Lipoteichoic acid (LTA) is another major constituent of the cell wall of Gram-positive bacteria which is embedded in the peptidoglycan layer. It consists of teichoic acids which are long chains of ribitol phosphate anchored to the lipid bilayer via a glyceride. It acts as regulator of autolytic wall enzymes (muramidases: Bacterial enzymes located in the cell wall that cause disintegration of the cell following injury or death.)
Gram Negative Cell Wall:
Gram-negative bacteria have a thinner layer of peptidoglycan (10% of the cell wall) and lose the crystal violet-iodine complex during decolorization with the alcohol rinse, but retain the counter stain Safranin, thus appearing reddish or pink. They also have an additional outer membrane which contains lipids, which is separated from the cell wall by means of periplasmic space.
pic(C)picamvl
what is Gram Stain Technique with animation
Aim:
To differentiate between the two major categories of bacteria: Gram positive and Gram negative.To understand how the Gram stain
reaction affects Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria based on the
biochemical and structural differences of their cell walls.
principle :Staining is an
auxiliary technique used in microscopic techniques used to enhance the
clarity of the microscopic image.Stains and dyes are widely used in the
scientific field to highlight the structure of the biological
specimens, cells, tissues etc.The most widely used staining procedure in microbiology is the Gram stain, discovered by the Danish scientist and physician Hans Christian Joachim Gram in 1884. Gram staining is a differential staining technique that differentiates bacteria into two groups: gram-positives and gram-negatives. The procedure is based on the ability of microorganisms to retain color of the stains used during the gram stain reaction. Gram-negative bacteria are decolorized by the alcohol, losing the color of the primary stain, purple. Gram-positive bacteria are not decolorized by alcohol and will remain as purple. After the decolorization step, a counterstain is used to impart a pink color to the decolorized gram-negative organisms.
Importance of a Gram Stain:
The Gram stain is a very important
preliminary step in the initial characterization and classification of
bacteria. It is also a key procedure in the identification of bacteria
based on staining characteristics, enabling the bacteria to be examined
using a light microscope. The bacteria present in an unstained smear
are invisible when viewed using a light microscope. Once stained, the
morphology and arrangement of the bacteria may be observed as well.
Furthermore, it is also an important step in the screening of
infectious agents in clinical specimens such as direct smears from a
patient.
The Gram stain procedure enables
bacteria to retain color of the stains, based on the differences in the
chemical and physical properties of the cell wall.
1. Gram positive bacteria: Stain dark purple due to retaining the primary dye called Crystal Violet in the cell wall.
Example: Staphylococcus aureus
for more reading and animation visit :
http://amrita.vlab.co.in/index.php?sub=3&brch=73&sim=208&cnt=1
Tuesday, September 24, 2013
Monday, September 23, 2013
Bailey & Scott’s Diagnostic Microbiology, 12th Edition
he new 12th edition of Bailey & Scott’s Diagnostic Microbiology solidifies its reputation as the classic text in the field of microbiology. This new edition features the same comprehensive, authoritative content and adds new and updated material throughout. The team of authors includes three well-respected clinical microbiologists, all of whom have experience both in the classroom and the clinical laboratory.
NEW TO THIS EDITION
Three NEW chapters:
General Considerations and Applications of Information Provided in Bacterial Sections of Part III explains explains the criteria for organism inclusion and how it should be used.
Bacterial Identification Flow Charts and Schemes: A Guide to Part III includes gram reaction, shape, arrangement, atmosphere preferred, oxidase and catalase reactions, among other decision points for various pathogens, creating a visual method of identifying and cross referencing organisms.
Sentinel Laboratory Response to Bioterrorism
A NEW section on clinical laboratory management
More case studies help to develop critical thinking skills, with answers in an appendix.
More photos of the major organisms have been included to help in identifying different organisms.
KEY FEATURES
A respected author team consists of three well-respected clinical microbiologists, each of whom has experience both in the classroom and the clinical laboratory.
Genera and Species to be Considered highlight all of the organisms to be discussed in each chapter, including the current name of the species as well as any previous names.
Detailed hands-on procedures make the content more interesting and relevant by describing exactly what takes place in the micro lab.
Convenient, easy-to-read tables summarize key information.
A glossary of all of the terms is found at the back of the book for quick reference. - See more at: http://www.biobookshelf.com/2013/09/bailey-scotts-diagnostic-microbiology.html#sthash.zVovyqfA.dpuf
NEW TO THIS EDITION
Three NEW chapters:
General Considerations and Applications of Information Provided in Bacterial Sections of Part III explains explains the criteria for organism inclusion and how it should be used.
Bacterial Identification Flow Charts and Schemes: A Guide to Part III includes gram reaction, shape, arrangement, atmosphere preferred, oxidase and catalase reactions, among other decision points for various pathogens, creating a visual method of identifying and cross referencing organisms.
Sentinel Laboratory Response to Bioterrorism
A NEW section on clinical laboratory management
More case studies help to develop critical thinking skills, with answers in an appendix.
More photos of the major organisms have been included to help in identifying different organisms.
KEY FEATURES
A respected author team consists of three well-respected clinical microbiologists, each of whom has experience both in the classroom and the clinical laboratory.
Genera and Species to be Considered highlight all of the organisms to be discussed in each chapter, including the current name of the species as well as any previous names.
Detailed hands-on procedures make the content more interesting and relevant by describing exactly what takes place in the micro lab.
Convenient, easy-to-read tables summarize key information.
A glossary of all of the terms is found at the back of the book for quick reference. - See more at: http://www.biobookshelf.com/2013/09/bailey-scotts-diagnostic-microbiology.html#sthash.zVovyqfA.dpuf
he new 12th edition of Bailey & Scott’s Diagnostic Microbiology solidifies its reputation as the classic text in the field of microbiology. This new edition features the same comprehensive, authoritative content and adds new and updated material throughout. The team of authors includes three well-respected clinical microbiologists, all of whom have experience both in the classroom and the clinical laboratory.
NEW TO THIS EDITION
Three NEW chapters:
General Considerations and Applications of Information Provided in Bacterial Sections of Part III explains explains the criteria for organism inclusion and how it should be used.
Bacterial Identification Flow Charts and Schemes: A Guide to Part III includes gram reaction, shape, arrangement, atmosphere preferred, oxidase and catalase reactions, among other decision points for various pathogens, creating a visual method of identifying and cross referencing organisms.
Sentinel Laboratory Response to Bioterrorism
A NEW section on clinical laboratory management
More case studies help to develop critical thinking skills, with answers in an appendix.
More photos of the major organisms have been included to help in identifying different organisms.
KEY FEATURES
A respected author team consists of three well-respected clinical microbiologists, each of whom has experience both in the classroom and the clinical laboratory.
Genera and Species to be Considered highlight all of the organisms to be discussed in each chapter, including the current name of the species as well as any previous names.
Detailed hands-on procedures make the content more interesting and relevant by describing exactly what takes place in the micro lab.
Convenient, easy-to-read tables summarize key information.
A glossary of all of the terms is found at the back of the book for quick reference. - See more at: http://www.biobookshelf.com/2013/09/bailey-scotts-diagnostic-microbiology.html#sthash.zVovyqfA.dpuf
NEW TO THIS EDITION
Three NEW chapters:
General Considerations and Applications of Information Provided in Bacterial Sections of Part III explains explains the criteria for organism inclusion and how it should be used.
Bacterial Identification Flow Charts and Schemes: A Guide to Part III includes gram reaction, shape, arrangement, atmosphere preferred, oxidase and catalase reactions, among other decision points for various pathogens, creating a visual method of identifying and cross referencing organisms.
Sentinel Laboratory Response to Bioterrorism
A NEW section on clinical laboratory management
More case studies help to develop critical thinking skills, with answers in an appendix.
More photos of the major organisms have been included to help in identifying different organisms.
KEY FEATURES
A respected author team consists of three well-respected clinical microbiologists, each of whom has experience both in the classroom and the clinical laboratory.
Genera and Species to be Considered highlight all of the organisms to be discussed in each chapter, including the current name of the species as well as any previous names.
Detailed hands-on procedures make the content more interesting and relevant by describing exactly what takes place in the micro lab.
Convenient, easy-to-read tables summarize key information.
A glossary of all of the terms is found at the back of the book for quick reference. - See more at: http://www.biobookshelf.com/2013/09/bailey-scotts-diagnostic-microbiology.html#sthash.zVovyqfA.dpuf
he new 12th edition of Bailey & Scott’s Diagnostic Microbiology solidifies its reputation as the classic text in the field of microbiology. This new edition features the same comprehensive, authoritative content and adds new and updated material throughout. The team of authors includes three well-respected clinical microbiologists, all of whom have experience both in the classroom and the clinical laboratory.
NEW TO THIS EDITION
Three NEW chapters:
General Considerations and Applications of Information Provided in Bacterial Sections of Part III explains explains the criteria for organism inclusion and how it should be used.
Bacterial Identification Flow Charts and Schemes: A Guide to Part III includes gram reaction, shape, arrangement, atmosphere preferred, oxidase and catalase reactions, among other decision points for various pathogens, creating a visual method of identifying and cross referencing organisms.
Sentinel Laboratory Response to Bioterrorism
A NEW section on clinical laboratory management
More case studies help to develop critical thinking skills, with answers in an appendix.
More photos of the major organisms have been included to help in identifying different organisms.
KEY FEATURES
A respected author team consists of three well-respected clinical microbiologists, each of whom has experience both in the classroom and the clinical laboratory.
Genera and Species to be Considered highlight all of the organisms to be discussed in each chapter, including the current name of the species as well as any previous names.
Detailed hands-on procedures make the content more interesting and relevant by describing exactly what takes place in the micro lab.
Convenient, easy-to-read tables summarize key information.
A glossary of all of the terms is found at the back of the book for quick reference. - See more at: http://www.biobookshelf.com/2013/09/bailey-scotts-diagnostic-microbiology.html#sthash.zVovyqfA.dpuf
NEW TO THIS EDITION
Three NEW chapters:
General Considerations and Applications of Information Provided in Bacterial Sections of Part III explains explains the criteria for organism inclusion and how it should be used.
Bacterial Identification Flow Charts and Schemes: A Guide to Part III includes gram reaction, shape, arrangement, atmosphere preferred, oxidase and catalase reactions, among other decision points for various pathogens, creating a visual method of identifying and cross referencing organisms.
Sentinel Laboratory Response to Bioterrorism
A NEW section on clinical laboratory management
More case studies help to develop critical thinking skills, with answers in an appendix.
More photos of the major organisms have been included to help in identifying different organisms.
KEY FEATURES
A respected author team consists of three well-respected clinical microbiologists, each of whom has experience both in the classroom and the clinical laboratory.
Genera and Species to be Considered highlight all of the organisms to be discussed in each chapter, including the current name of the species as well as any previous names.
Detailed hands-on procedures make the content more interesting and relevant by describing exactly what takes place in the micro lab.
Convenient, easy-to-read tables summarize key information.
A glossary of all of the terms is found at the back of the book for quick reference. - See more at: http://www.biobookshelf.com/2013/09/bailey-scotts-diagnostic-microbiology.html#sthash.zVovyqfA.dpuf
he new 12th edition of Bailey & Scott’s Diagnostic Microbiology solidifies its reputation as the classic text in the field of microbiology. This new edition features the same comprehensive, authoritative content and adds new and updated material throughout. The team of authors includes three well-respected clinical microbiologists, all of whom have experience both in the classroom and the clinical laboratory.
NEW TO THIS EDITION
Three NEW chapters:
General Considerations and Applications of Information Provided in Bacterial Sections of Part III explains explains the criteria for organism inclusion and how it should be used.
Bacterial Identification Flow Charts and Schemes: A Guide to Part III includes gram reaction, shape, arrangement, atmosphere preferred, oxidase and catalase reactions, among other decision points for various pathogens, creating a visual method of identifying and cross referencing organisms.
Sentinel Laboratory Response to Bioterrorism
A NEW section on clinical laboratory management
More case studies help to develop critical thinking skills, with answers in an appendix.
More photos of the major organisms have been included to help in identifying different organisms.
KEY FEATURES
A respected author team consists of three well-respected clinical microbiologists, each of whom has experience both in the classroom and the clinical laboratory.
Genera and Species to be Considered highlight all of the organisms to be discussed in each chapter, including the current name of the species as well as any previous names.
Detailed hands-on procedures make the content more interesting and relevant by describing exactly what takes place in the micro lab.
Convenient, easy-to-read tables summarize key information.
NEW TO THIS EDITION
Three NEW chapters:
General Considerations and Applications of Information Provided in Bacterial Sections of Part III explains explains the criteria for organism inclusion and how it should be used.
Bacterial Identification Flow Charts and Schemes: A Guide to Part III includes gram reaction, shape, arrangement, atmosphere preferred, oxidase and catalase reactions, among other decision points for various pathogens, creating a visual method of identifying and cross referencing organisms.
Sentinel Laboratory Response to Bioterrorism
A NEW section on clinical laboratory management
More case studies help to develop critical thinking skills, with answers in an appendix.
More photos of the major organisms have been included to help in identifying different organisms.
KEY FEATURES
A respected author team consists of three well-respected clinical microbiologists, each of whom has experience both in the classroom and the clinical laboratory.
Genera and Species to be Considered highlight all of the organisms to be discussed in each chapter, including the current name of the species as well as any previous names.
Detailed hands-on procedures make the content more interesting and relevant by describing exactly what takes place in the micro lab.
Convenient, easy-to-read tables summarize key information.
A glossary of all of the terms is found at the back of the book for quick reference. - See more at: http://www.biobookshelf.com/2013/09/bailey-scotts-diagnostic-microbiology.html#sthash.zVovyqfA.dpuf
he new 12th edition of Bailey & Scott’s Diagnostic Microbiology solidifies its reputation as the classic text in the field of microbiology. This new edition features the same comprehensive, authoritative content and adds new and updated material throughout. The team of authors includes three well-respected clinical microbiologists, all of whom have experience both in the classroom and the clinical laboratory.
NEW TO THIS EDITION
Three NEW chapters:
General Considerations and Applications of Information Provided in Bacterial Sections of Part III explains explains the criteria for organism inclusion and how it should be used.
Bacterial Identification Flow Charts and Schemes: A Guide to Part III includes gram reaction, shape, arrangement, atmosphere preferred, oxidase and catalase reactions, among other decision points for various pathogens, creating a visual method of identifying and cross referencing organisms.
Sentinel Laboratory Response to Bioterrorism
A NEW section on clinical laboratory management
More case studies help to develop critical thinking skills, with answers in an appendix.
More photos of the major organisms have been included to help in identifying different organisms.
KEY FEATURES
A respected author team consists of three well-respected clinical microbiologists, each of whom has experience both in the classroom and the clinical laboratory.
Genera and Species to be Considered highlight all of the organisms to be discussed in each chapter, including the current name of the species as well as any previous names.
Detailed hands-on procedures make the content more interesting and relevant by describing exactly what takes place in the micro lab.
Convenient, easy-to-read tables summarize key information.
A glossary of all of the terms is found at the back of the book for quick reference. - See more at: http://www.biobookshelf.com/2013/09/bailey-scotts-diagnostic-microbiology.html#sthash.zVovyqfA.dpuf
NEW TO THIS EDITION
Three NEW chapters:
General Considerations and Applications of Information Provided in Bacterial Sections of Part III explains explains the criteria for organism inclusion and how it should be used.
Bacterial Identification Flow Charts and Schemes: A Guide to Part III includes gram reaction, shape, arrangement, atmosphere preferred, oxidase and catalase reactions, among other decision points for various pathogens, creating a visual method of identifying and cross referencing organisms.
Sentinel Laboratory Response to Bioterrorism
A NEW section on clinical laboratory management
More case studies help to develop critical thinking skills, with answers in an appendix.
More photos of the major organisms have been included to help in identifying different organisms.
KEY FEATURES
A respected author team consists of three well-respected clinical microbiologists, each of whom has experience both in the classroom and the clinical laboratory.
Genera and Species to be Considered highlight all of the organisms to be discussed in each chapter, including the current name of the species as well as any previous names.
Detailed hands-on procedures make the content more interesting and relevant by describing exactly what takes place in the micro lab.
Convenient, easy-to-read tables summarize key information.
A glossary of all of the terms is found at the back of the book for quick reference. - See more at: http://www.biobookshelf.com/2013/09/bailey-scotts-diagnostic-microbiology.html#sthash.zVovyqfA.dpuf
h
NEW TO THIS EDITION
Three NEW chapters:
General Considerations and Applications of Information Provided in Bacterial Sections of Part III explains explains the criteria for organism inclusion and how it should be used.
Bacterial Identification Flow Charts and Schemes: A Guide to Part III includes gram reaction, shape, arrangement, atmosphere preferred, oxidase and catalase reactions, among other decision points for various pathogens, creating a visual method of identifying and cross referencing organisms.
Sentinel Laboratory Response to Bioterrorism
A NEW section on clinical laboratory management
More case studies help to develop critical thinking skills, with answers in an appendix.
More photos of the major organisms have been included to help in identifying different organisms.
KEY FEATURES
A respected author team consists of three well-respected clinical microbiologists, each of whom has experience both in the classroom and the clinical laboratory.
Genera and Species to be Considered highlight all of the organisms to be discussed in each chapter, including the current name of the species as well as any previous names.
Detailed hands-on procedures make the content more interesting and relevant by describing exactly what takes place in the micro lab.
Convenient, easy-to-read tables summarize key information.
A glossary of all of the terms is found at the back of the book for quick reference. - See more at: http://www.biobookshelf.com/2013/09/bailey-scotts-diagnostic-microbiology.html#sthash.zVovyqfA.dpuf
he new 12th edition of Bailey & Scott’s Diagnostic Microbiology solidifies its reputation as the classic text in the field of microbiology. This new edition features the same comprehensive, authoritative content and adds new and updated material throughout. The team of authors includes three well-respected clinical microbiologists, all of whom have experience both in the classroom and the clinical laboratory.
NEW TO THIS EDITION
Three NEW chapters:
General Considerations and Applications of Information Provided in Bacterial Sections of Part III explains explains the criteria for organism inclusion and how it should be used.
Bacterial Identification Flow Charts and Schemes: A Guide to Part III includes gram reaction, shape, arrangement, atmosphere preferred, oxidase and catalase reactions, among other decision points for various pathogens, creating a visual method of identifying and cross referencing organisms.
Sentinel Laboratory Response to Bioterrorism
A NEW section on clinical laboratory management
More case studies help to develop critical thinking skills, with answers in an appendix.
More photos of the major organisms have been included to help in identifying different organisms.
KEY FEATURES
A respected author team consists of three well-respected clinical microbiologists, each of whom has experience both in the classroom and the clinical laboratory.
Genera and Species to be Considered highlight all of the organisms to be discussed in each chapter, including the current name of the species as well as any previous names.
Detailed hands-on procedures make the content more interesting and relevant by describing exactly what takes place in the micro lab.
Convenient, easy-to-read tables summarize key information.
A glossary of all of the terms is found at the back of the book for quick reference. - See more at: http://www.biobookshelf.com/2013/09/bailey-scotts-diagnostic-microbiology.html#sthash.zVovyqfA.dpuf
e new 12th edition of Bailey & Scott’s Diagnostic Microbiology solidifies its reputation as the classic text in the field of microbiology. This new edition features the same comprehensive, authoritative content and adds new and updated material throughout. The team of authors includes three well-respected clinical microbiologists, all of whom have experience both in the classroom and the clinical laboratory.NEW TO THIS EDITION
Three NEW chapters:
General Considerations and Applications of Information Provided in Bacterial Sections of Part III explains explains the criteria for organism inclusion and how it should be used.
Bacterial Identification Flow Charts and Schemes: A Guide to Part III includes gram reaction, shape, arrangement, atmosphere preferred, oxidase and catalase reactions, among other decision points for various pathogens, creating a visual method of identifying and cross referencing organisms.
Sentinel Laboratory Response to Bioterrorism
A NEW section on clinical laboratory management
More case studies help to develop critical thinking skills, with answers in an appendix.
More photos of the major organisms have been included to help in identifying different organisms.
KEY FEATURES
A respected author team consists of three well-respected clinical microbiologists, each of whom has experience both in the classroom and the clinical laboratory.
Genera and Species to be Considered highlight all of the organisms to be discussed in each chapter, including the current name of the species as well as any previous names.
Detailed hands-on procedures make the content more interesting and relevant by describing exactly what takes place in the micro lab.
Convenient, easy-to-read tables summarize key information.
A glossary of all of the terms is found at the back of the book for quick reference. - See more at: http://www.biobookshelf.com/2013/09/bailey-scotts-diagnostic-microbiology.html#sthash.zVovyqfA.dpuf
NEW TO THIS EDITION
Three NEW chapters:
General Considerations and Applications of Information Provided in Bacterial Sections of Part III explains explains the criteria for organism inclusion and how it should be used.
Bacterial Identification Flow Charts and Schemes: A Guide to Part III includes gram reaction, shape, arrangement, atmosphere preferred, oxidase and catalase reactions, among other decision points for various pathogens, creating a visual method of identifying and cross referencing organisms.
Sentinel Laboratory Response to Bioterrorism
A NEW section on clinical laboratory management
More case studies help to develop critical thinking skills, with answers in an appendix.
More photos of the major organisms have been included to help in identifying different organisms.
KEY FEATURES
A respected author team consists of three well-respected clinical microbiologists, each of whom has experience both in the classroom and the clinical laboratory.
Genera and Species to be Considered highlight all of the organisms to be discussed in each chapter, including the current name of the species as well as any previous names.
Detailed hands-on procedures make the content more interesting and relevant by describing exactly what takes place in the micro lab.
Convenient, easy-to-read tables summarize key information.
A glossary of all of the terms is found at the back of the book for quick reference. - See more at: http://www.biobookshelf.com/2013/09/bailey-scotts-diagnostic-microbiology.html#sthash.zVovyqfA.dpuf
Thursday, September 19, 2013
Friday, September 13, 2013
Bubble sort algorithm in c
// Bubble sort by yeomans // #include <stdio.h> int main() { int array[100], n, c, d, swap; printf("Enter number of elements\n"); scanf("%d", &n); printf("Enter %d integers\n", n); for (c = 0; c < n; c++) scanf("%d", &array[c]); for (c = 0 ; c < ( n - 1 ); c++) { for (d = 0 ; d < n - c - 1; d++) { if (array[d] > array[d+1]) /* For decreasing order use < */ { swap = array[d]; array[d] = array[d+1]; array[d+1] = swap; } } } printf("Sorted list in ascending order:\n"); for ( c = 0 ; c < n ; c++ ) printf("%d\n", array[c]); return 0; }
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